Christianity in the modern era

Christianity in the modern era refers to the history and changes in the Christian faith from around 1500, at the start of the Protestant Reformation, through the early 20th century, ending after World War II. It includes the movements that reshaped Christianity, the spread of the faith globally, and responses to modern ideas.

From around 1500, the Protestant Reformation began a major split in Christianity. Leaders like Martin Luther and John Calvin challenged the Catholic Church, leading to new Protestant churches, and the Catholic Church responded with its own renewal in the Counter-Reformation. At the same time, Christians from Europe spread their faith around the world during the Age of Exploration, reaching Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Missionaries, including Jesuits, Franciscans, and Dominicans, established churches and schools, and sometimes debated how much to respect local cultures.

Between 1750 and 1945, Christianity took many new forms. In North America, the Great Awakenings—large religious revival movements—led to more personal and emotional faith, helped start Evangelical, Baptist, Methodist, and Pentecostal churches, and shaped how Christians worship and live. In Russia, the Orthodox Church became closely linked to the state under Peter the Great and remained so until the early 20th century. Meanwhile, Western countries experienced Secularisation—a move away from traditional belief—while at the same time Christian missionaries and immigrants helped spread faith in places like East Asia.

In the modern era, Christian thinkers wrestled with new ideas. Liberal (modernist) theology began in the late 18th and 19th centuries as Christians used modern knowledge and science to understand faith more deeply; this view values reason, ethics, and seeing the Bible as teaching moral truths rather than only literal history. In reaction, fundamentalism arose in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, insisting on core beliefs like the literal Bible, Jesus’s resurrection, and the virgin birth. These debates shaped many national churches, especially in Protestant countries.

In the mid-20th century, the Catholic Church held the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which encouraged modern language in Mass, more participation by laypeople, and openness to other religions. At the same time, the ecumenical movement, led by groups like the World Council of Churches (from 1948), promoted unity and cooperation between different Christian traditions, especially Protestant and Orthodox churches.

In the 20th century, Christianity spread rapidly in Africa, and Asia, becoming a global religion. However, in Western Europe and North America, secularisation—when people move away from religion—led to declining church attendance and belief in many countries. Today, Christians respond by forming new expressions of faith, including vibrant Pentecostal churches in the Global South and progressive Christianity in the West, which focuses on social justice, environmental care, and inclusion.

Christianity’s global reach often came with colonial expansion, and while missions helped build schools and hospitals, they sometimes supported colonial control. This history has led to ongoing discussions on how churches should partner, respect local cultures, and be truthful about past wrongs. At the same time, Christians have contributed greatly to science—as early scientists believed they were exploring God’s creation—and to social justice, leading movements to abolish slavery, support human rights, and care for the poor and environment.