History of Papua New Guinea

The early history of Papua New Guinea goes back about 50,000 to 60,000 years, when people first moved towards what is now Australia. Written records begin in 1526, when European sailors first saw New Guinea.

Oceania includes four main regions: Australasia, Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia. Australasia covers Australia (including Tasmania), New Zealand, and New Guinea.

Studies show that humans may have arrived in New Guinea around 60,000 years ago, though experts still debate this date.^[1] They likely came from Southeast Asia by boat during a time when sea levels were lower due to an ice age. At first, they lived by hunting and gathering, but they soon began managing forests for food. There is also evidence of farming at Kuk Swamp, happening around the same time as the start of farming in ancient Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Today’s common foods like sweet potatoes and pigs came later. For a long time, coastal people mainly ate fish and shellfish. Recent findings suggest that people lived in highland areas up to 2,000 meters above sea level as far back as 50,000 years ago—much earlier than once thought.

Scientists believe modern humans reached New Guinea, Australia, and the Bismarck Archipelago between 42,000 and 45,000 years ago. Bougainville was settled about 28,000 years ago, and Manus Island about 20,000 years ago. These movements were part of some of the earliest human migrations out of Africa. After arriving, these groups stayed mostly separate from other parts of the world.^[2]

Signs of life in the highlands date back 35,000 years. Around 18,000 years ago, the climate began to warm. About 10,000 years ago, rising seas separated New Guinea from Australia. However, genetic studies show that Aboriginal Australians and New Guineans split from each other about 37,000 years ago. As the weather changed, more people began living on the islands. Sea levels rose over the Torres Strait about 8,500 years ago. The Bismarck and Solomon Islands were never connected to the large landmass called Sahul. People in New Guinea today carry 4%–7% Denisovan DNA, showing their ancestors mixed with this ancient group in Asia.

Stone tools found on the Huon Peninsula are about 40,000 years old. Before full-scale farming, people already grew some plants like sago, Canarium indicum, and karuka. Karuka may have come from a wild plant called Pandanus brosimos. People also ate taro before they started growing it on purpose. Obsidian tools used for cutting plants were traded as early as 23,000 years ago. Sometimes, people even raised baby cassowaries.

Farming started in the New Guinea highlands around 7000 BC, making it one of the few places in the world where people began growing crops on their own. Evidence from Kuk Swamp shows that people grew taro and bananas there thousands of years ago.

About 3,300 years ago, Austronesian-speaking people known as the Lapita culture reached the Bismarck Archipelago.^[3] It’s unclear if they reached the mainland then, but by around 500 BC, they were clearly present along the coast. These people were part of wide trade networks. Through these links, crops like bananas and sugarcane spread beyond New Guinea. The arrival of the Lapita people is also linked to new items like pottery, chickens, pigs, dogs, and better fishing methods.^[4] Two plants—Barringtonia procera and kava—came from nearby Pacific islands like the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.

Trade slowed around 300 AD as interest shifted to the Maluku Islands and Timor. Later, in the 1500s, Dutch influence grew in the area through the Sultanate of Tidore. Over time, the Dutch claimed more land, shaping the current border between Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Trade picked up again in eastern New Guinea in the late 1600s, driven by demand for goods like dammar gum, sea cucumbers, pearls, copra, shells, and bird-of-paradise feathers.

By the late 1900s, practices like headhunting and cannibalism had mostly stopped. But in the past, many groups did them as part of rituals tied to war or capturing enemy spirits.^[5] In 1901, missionary Harry Dauncey found 10,000 skulls on Goaribari Island, showing how widespread these customs once were. In her 1991 book, Marianna Torgovnick wrote that New Guinea had some of the best-documented cases of ritual cannibalism, which lasted in some remote areas into the 1950s, 60s, and 70s.

In New Guinea, communities were connected through trade, but each group was mostly independent, relying on small farms. Goods often moved through set trading paths, and some villagers knew the languages of nearby villages. Broader trade routes existed at sea, such as the Kula ring, the Schouten Islands trade, the Vitiaz Strait exchange, and the Hiri trade cycle. While people didn’t travel far themselves, goods and ideas moved across long distances. Still, the political systems introduced by Europeans had no roots in local traditions. Often, they brought together groups that had never worked together—or even disliked each other.

It’s possible that traders from China and Southeast Asia visited New Guinea long ago and had some contact with local people.^[6] In 1526, Portuguese explorer António de Abreu became the first European to reach the island, landing on the northern coast. Later that year, another Portuguese sailor, Jorge de Menezes, explored the western side. The first Spanish visitor was Álvaro de Saavedra Cerón in 1528.

Portuguese traders brought the sweet potato from South America to the Moluccas (now part of Indonesia). It likely reached what is now Papua New Guinea in the 1600s or 1700s, arriving first on the southern coast. From there, it spread inland to the highlands and became a major food source. The arrival of the sweet potato changed farming and life in the region. It helped support larger populations and more pigs, and may have led to the rise of the “Big Man” social system. Sweet potato replaced taro as the main crop in many areas, though some groups kept growing taro and yam. Scientists still debate exactly when the sweet potato arrived.

Other plants from the Americas also came around this time. Tobacco was first recorded in 1616, lima beans probably came in the 1700s or 1800s, and Bixa orellana arrived before 1870. Before Europeans came for good, over 170 types of plants were used for food, including taro, banana, sago, and yam.

When Europeans first arrived, New Guineans already had a strong farming system. They used tools made of bone, wood, and stone. People traded along the coast—mainly pottery, shell jewelry, and food—and inland, exchanging forest goods for shells and other sea products.

The earliest known Europeans to see New Guinea were Portuguese and Spanish sailors in the early 1500s. In 1526–1527, Jorge de Menezes accidentally landed on the main island.

The name “Papua” comes from a local word that might have already been used by people living in parts of the island. In 1526, Jorge de Menezes called the island Ilhas dos Papuas . The word has been used for different parts of New Guinea ever since.

“Papua” might come from a Malay word describing the curly hair of Melanesian people. A Portuguese captain named António Galvão once wrote: "The people of all these islands are black and have frizzy hair, whom the people of Maluco call Papuas."

The name “New Guinea” was given by Spanish explorer Yñigo Ortiz de Retez in 1545. He noticed that the people looked similar to those he had seen along the Guinea coast of Africa. “Guinea” itself comes from a Portuguese word meaning something like “land of dark-skinned people.” This name later became part of “German New Guinea,” which eventually merged with the Territory of Papua to form today’s “Papua New Guinea.”

Although European explorers visited the island after the 1500s, little was known about its people until the 1870s. That’s when Russian anthropologist Nikolai Miklukho-Maklai visited New Guinea, lived among local tribes, and wrote detailed reports about their lives.

By the 1800s, some trade happened between New Guinea and the Dutch East Indies. Starting in the 1860s, people from coastal Papua were taken to Queensland and Fiji as laborers, often against their will—a practice known as “blackbirding.” This ended in 1884. Some who returned home brought back new ideas, and this helped create the Tok Pisin language, which is still spoken today.

French explorer Louis Antoine de Bougainville sailed through what is now the Autonomous Region of Bougainville in the 1760s. Russian scientist Nikolai Miklukho-Maklai also spent several years in New Guinea in the 1870s.

Christianity arrived in New Guinea on September 15, 1847, when French Marist missionaries came to Woodlark Island and set up a mission on Umboi Island. They left soon after due to sickness and resistance from locals. Five years later, in 1852, another group re-established the mission on Woodlark Island. Whalers who knew the area helped them choose the location. For both sides of the island, missions were the main way Western culture and religion spread.

Missionary work in Papua began in the 1870s. The largest group was the London Missionary Society, which started in 1873 and included missionaries from Polynesia. By the time of World War I, 327 missionaries had worked in Papua. Around the same time, Methodist missionaries opened a mission in the Duke of York Islands in 1875, and a Lutheran mission started in Finschhafen in 1886. A Catholic mission was founded in New Guinea in 1896.

In 1793, the British East India Company tried to take control of part of New Guinea, but the British government did not approve. The Netherlands claimed the western half of the island in 1848. Early knowledge of the eastern part came from whalers near the Duke of York Islands and passing traders.

European settlement in New Guinea began in the 1870s. Nikolai Miklukho-Maklai lived on the Rai Coast from 1871 and introduced crops that are still known by names based on Russian words. The London Missionary Society started missions on the south coast in 1872. In 1873, a German trader, Johann Cesar VI. Godeffroy, set up a trading post at Blanche Bay. That same year, British Captain John Moresby raised the British flag on Hayter Island near Milne Bay, but the British government did not officially support this act.

Methodist missionaries arrived in the Duke of York Islands in 1875. In 1878, the Torres Strait Islands were added to Queensland because of growing interest in New Guinea. The border moved north in 1879.

Queensland and other Australian states worried that Germany might take control of the rest of New Guinea. In 1883, Queensland tried to claim the land, but the move was not legal. After talks with Britain, the British colonies in the area agreed to help pay for any costs involved.

In 1884, the eastern half of the island was split between two foreign powers. Germany took the northern part, calling it German New Guinea, and later made it official. The southern part became British New Guinea. The border between them was decided in 1885 and slightly changed in 1895.

In 1883, Queensland tried to take control of the southern part of eastern New Guinea. But the British government did not agree. When Germany started founding settlements in the north, Britain decided to take action. In 1884, Britain claimed the southern coast and nearby islands as a protectorate called British New Guinea. In 1888, it was officially made a British colony.

In 1902, control of Papua was given to Australia. Then, in 1905, a new law renamed the area the Territory of Papua , and full Australian rule began in 1906. Even though Australia was in charge, Papua was still considered a British territory until Papua New Guinea became independent in 1975.

Gold was found near the Mambare River in 1895. This was one of the first major discoveries in the region.

In 1888, the Ritter Island volcano erupted. The explosion caused large waves called tsunamis that hit the mainland.^[7]

Papua had very little economic activity for many years. Australia ran the territory separately under the Papua Act until World War II. In 1941, Japan invaded Papua and stopped regular government rule. During the war, Australia ran Papua through a military government based in Port Moresby. General Douglas MacArthur, a top U.S. commander, sometimes worked from there.

In 1908, the trade of birds-of-paradise was banned in Papua. People were worried these beautiful birds might disappear because too many were being hunted for their feathers. 

In the late 1800s, Europe wanted more coconut oil. A big German trading company called Godeffroy’s began buying copra (dried coconut) from islands near New Guinea. In 1884, Germany claimed the northeastern part of the island. They gave control to a special company called the German New Guinea Company .

This company had permission from the German government to act on its behalf. It could make deals with local people and run the area like a government. But foreign affairs were still controlled by Germany itself. The company paid for local government using money it made from business deals and land rights.

In 1899, Germany took full control of the territory. From then on, it was called German New Guinea .

At first, the German New Guinea Company tried to grow crops on large farms, but that didn’t work well. So they started trading goods instead. By 1889, the German government was directly in charge. Trading posts were set up in 1897, and soon only German traders were allowed in the area. This helped them avoid competition. Even so, some secret trade kept happening inland along old trade routes until at least the 1930s.

In nearby British-controlled New Guinea, gold was found near the Mambare River in 1895.

German New Guinea was mainly run as a business. Thousands of local workers were hired for low wages to work on cocoa and coconut plantations. Schools were run by missionaries.

When World War I began in 1914, Australia took over the German colony. After the war, the League of Nations let Australia manage the area as a trust. The plantations and gold mines helped the economy grow.

New Guinea first limited the trade of birds-of-paradise. Then in 1914, during German rule, the trade was banned for one year. Under Australian rule, the ban became permanent in 1922 to protect the birds.

Life in New Guinea changed under European rule. Fighting between tribes became less common. In new towns, people from different groups began mixing more as they moved to find jobs in farming cash crops like copra.

There was a big gap between rich European rulers and local people. Because of this, new religious groups called cargo cults began to form. These groups believed that goods and wealth would one day come to them, often through spiritual means.

Only a small amount of land was used for plantations, mostly on islands and along the coast. Still, a trade system grew where people exchanged items like copra, pearls, shells, and bird-of-paradise feathers.

One of the biggest changes during colonial times was how people traveled. Tribal wars were no longer allowed, and it became normal to move for work. More roads were built, making it easier for people to travel between inland areas.

Colonial leaders usually worked with one person from each village, or sometimes a person who spoke for several villages. These people were not always traditional leaders. Often, they were chosen because they had good relationships with European officials. Because of this, neither the German nor British governments created strong systems of local rule.^[8]

In German New Guinea, a simple language called Tok Pisin started to spread. It was already being used by locals before Europeans arrived. The German government didn’t like using it at first, but ended up using it anyway. Missionaries taught using a mix of Tok Pisin and local languages, and each mission often used its own version of the language.

In areas ruled by the British and later Australia, a basic form of English was used at first. But soon, people began using Hiri Motu, a simplified form of the Motu language. This language was already popular around Port Moresby. Hiri Motu quickly became the main official language, even though schools still taught formal English.

When World War I began in 1914, Australian forces took control of German New Guinea and stayed there during the war. During this time, Australia mostly kept the laws that were already in place.

After the war ended, the League of Nations gave Australia permission to govern the area as a Class C mandate starting on May 9, 1921. This area became known as the Territory of New Guinea . It was ruled separately from the Territory of Papua, which was still under British control.

Australia officially took charge of the former German part of New Guinea in 1920. It continued to run the area until Japan invaded in December 1941 . At that time, regular government rule by Australia stopped. Japanese forces took over much of New Guinea, including the islands of Bougainville and New Britain, before being pushed out by Australian and American troops near the end of the war.

Even though both areas were controlled by Australia, they had different legal statuses. The League of Nations considered Papua an outside territory of Australia, but it was still legally a British land. Because of this, Papua and New Guinea had separate governments until 1949 . This made it harder to build a single legal system after Papua New Guinea became independent.

After World War I, more plantations were built along the coast and on islands. A new tax called a head tax was introduced, which pushed more people to join the colonial economy. In the 1920s, gold was found and soon became the main export.

When Australia started governing the area in 1921, it kept using Tok Pisin, a common language used for trade. Even though English was the official language in both territories, Tok Pisin was mainly used in the north, while Hiri Motu was used in the south. Over time, Tok Pisin spread more widely, while Hiri Motu stayed mostly in the Port Moresby region.

In the 1920s, gold was discovered in Bulolo , and people began searching for more gold in other parts of the island. By the 1930s, explorers reached the highland valleys and found that over one million people lived there.

Exploring Papua New Guinea has been a long process. Even as recently as 2017, new groups of people were still being contacted for the first time. Much of the exploration in New Guinea was not carefully planned. Instead, it was done by miners, missionaries, job recruiters, and adventurers who had their own goals. Many of these people did not write down what they saw, so we often don’t have full records of their journeys.

One exception is the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company’s Field Party , which made two official trips in 1929 and 1930. Their reports give us a good look into early exploration efforts.

In September 1929, the group traveled on a small boat called the Banyandah from Madang up the coast to the mouth of the Sepik River. From there, they went upriver to places like Marienberg and Moim, then followed other rivers inland. When the rivers ended, they carried supplies by smaller boats, canoes, and even on foot to reach their base camp high in the mountains.

During the first trip, the group looked for gold along the Arrabundio River and crossed part of the Central Mountain Range to check the Upper Karrawaddi River. They then crossed another mountain ridge to study the area where the Yuat River meets the Jimmi and Baiyer Rivers . Unfortunately, they found no gold worth mining. At the end of December 1929, some members returned to Sydney to report back to the company.

In February 1930, the second trip began. The team quickly returned to their mountain base and continued exploring the same areas. They followed the Baiyer River south and set up a camp they named 'Akmana Junction.' From there, they checked the Maramuni River and later the Tarua River , but again found no gold. Mining expert Seale advised that further searching would not be useful. The group had not yet reached the southern side of the mountains where earlier explorers had gone.

The group returned to Madang and sailed back to Sydney on July 3, 1930.

After leading the first trip, Sam Freeman did not return. Reg Beazley led the second trip, with Pontey Seale as mining engineer, Bill MacGregor and Beazley as prospectors, and Ernie Shepherd in charge of supplies and transport. All of them had served in World War I in places like Europe, Egypt, and the Middle East, and had experience in New Guinea.

Before 1929, some members had already worked in New Guinea. For example, Freeman searched for oil near Marienberg in 1926. Shepherd helped with a large geological survey in the Bogia to Ramu area and up the Sepik River. Beazley drilled for oil and looked for gold on the Arrabundio River, which led to the formation of the Akmana Gold Prospecting Company in 1928.

During their travels, the Akmana group met many different local communities, including people they called “grass country people,” “head hunters,” “pygmies,” “wig-men,” “Kanakas,” and “Poomani.” A man named Drybow (or Dribu), a leader among the wig-men, helped them make peaceful contact. He was smart, calm, and respected by others. The explorers said they tried to trade fairly and behave well, but their main goal was finding gold — which they never did in this region.

They collected items during their trip, including wigs made of human hair, and donated some to museums. Two wigs went to the Australian Museum in Sydney, one from Beazley and one from Shepherd. Some were mistakenly labeled later as coming from a different expedition led by Jim Taylor in the 1940s. Two more wigs were given to the National Museum in Canberra by Pontey Seale.

Soon after the start of the Pacific War, Japan invaded New Guinea. They took over most of West Papua, which was then called Dutch New Guinea, as well as parts of the Territory of New Guinea —the area that had been under Australian control since World War I. However, the southern part of the island, known as Papua, was harder for Japan to reach due to its location and rough mountain ranges.

The war in New Guinea began in 1942 with battles on the islands of New Britain and New Ireland. The town of Rabaul, which was the capital of the Territory of New Guinea, fell to Japanese forces on January 22–23. Rabaul became a key Japanese base, from which they launched attacks toward mainland New Guinea and tried to capture Port Moresby, a major town in Papua.^[9]

The Japanese first tried to take Port Moresby by sea, but were stopped by U.S. forces in the Battle of the Coral Sea. After that, they tried to move overland through the jungle along the Kokoda Trail .

From July 1942, young and inexperienced Australian soldiers fought hard to slow the Japanese advance across the steep Owen Stanley Mountains. Local Papuan people helped carry injured Australians down the trail. These helpers were later called "Fuzzy Wuzzy Angels" by Australians. In late August, more experienced Australian troops replaced the younger soldiers.

Eventually, the Japanese were pushed back. This led to the Battle of Buna-Gona, where Australian and American forces attacked Japanese bases at Buna, Sanananda, and Gona. The battle was very tough because of disease, difficult land, and strong Japanese defenses. Victory came at a high cost, with many lives lost.

In early September 1942, Japanese forces also tried to take Milne Bay, a key airfield in eastern Papua. But they were defeated by Australian troops. The Battle of Milne Bay marked the first time Japanese land forces were fully beaten during the war.

In 1943 and 1944, Australia led the largest series of military actions ever taken by its army in New Guinea. General Douglas MacArthur of the United States was in charge overall, while General Thomas Blamey planned and directed many operations from Port Moresby. Fighting between Australian forces and the main Japanese army in New Guinea continued until Japan surrendered in 1945.

The New Guinea campaign was one of the biggest parts of the Pacific War. Around 200,000 Japanese soldiers died, compared to about 7,000 Australians and 7,000 Americans .

During the war, fighting happened across the mainland and nearby islands. About 216,000 service members from Japan, Australia, and the U.S. died. Local people also played an important role in the war effort. During this time, normal government was stopped, and a military government ran both territories together.

World War II changed how people saw others from different backgrounds. It gave locals more exposure to new ideas and the wider world. People started moving around more, helping create a shared identity between those living in the two Australian-controlled areas.

Two common languages — Tok Pisin and Hiri Motu — became more widely used to help people communicate. For the first time, Tok Pisin spread into Papua. Radio broadcasts were even made in these languages.

The joint rule of both territories during the war continued after it ended. In 1945, the Papua New Guinea Provisional Administration Act officially put this plan into law.

After Japan surrendered in 1945, normal government rule began again in both Papua and New Guinea . Under the Papua New Guinea Provisional Administration Act (1945–46), the two areas were joined under one administration.

The Papua and New Guinea Act 1949 officially placed New Guinea under the United Nations trusteeship system and confirmed the union of the two regions as the Territory of Papua and New Guinea. The law created new systems for government, including a Legislative Council (set up in 1951), courts, public services, and local councils.

Jack Keith Murray was the first head of the territory. He served until 1952, when Donald Cleland took over.^[10] Cleland stayed in the role until he retired in 1967. He lived in Port Moresby until his death in 1975.

In 1963, the House of Assembly replaced the Legislative Council. After elections in February 1964, it officially opened in June 1964. In 1971, the name of the territory was changed to Papua New Guinea .

Australia’s policy toward Papua New Guinea started to change after it asked the World Bank to study how the territory could grow economically and prepare for self-rule. The bank’s 1964 report helped shape economic plans for years to come.

In 1946, New Guinea became a United Nations trust territory under Australian control. In 1949, people in Papua became Australian citizens , and Australia officially combined Papua and New Guinea into one territory. However, the northern part (former German New Guinea) remained a UN trust territory.

Starting in 1949, village councils were set up across both regions. These gave local leaders more power and helped create new types of leadership, such as those with experience in government or business.

By 1951, a Legislative Council with 28 members was created. Most were Australian officials, and only 3 seats went to local people. Jack Keith Murray was the first administrator of this council. Meetings were held in English, Tok Pisin, or Hiri Motu .

A major meeting about local government was held in 1959, followed by smaller regional meetings in later years.

Australia wanted to help the local population grow its economy after the war. Much of the work focused on farming, especially small farms that produced goods for export. While economic goals were clear, political goals were less certain — some thought Papua New Guinea should become independent, while others thought it might join Australia as a state.

During the 1960s and 1970s, more people joined the formal economy, and a local government workforce grew. Australian leaders also encouraged the idea of a shared national identity.

In the 1950s, schools began teaching more in English instead of local languages. Many saw English as an important language for jobs and success. But as a sense of national pride grew, local languages were added back into school lessons in the 1970s to support students’ cultural roots.

Political leaders developed a national idea called "The Melanesian Way." It supported fair treatment and group decision-making based on talking and agreeing together.

Airplane surveys in the 1950s found more people living in highland valleys than anyone had known before. After the war, Australian control expanded into these highlands. Some tribes were not contacted by outsiders until the 1960s and 1970s.

Coffee farming grew quickly in the highlands during this time. More people moved around the country, which helped spread Tok Pisin even further — including to cities like Port Moresby. By 1966, 37% of people spoke Tok Pisin, compared to 13% for English and 8% for Hiri Motu.

In 1965, there was a proposal to allow bird-of-paradise hunting for money, but it did not pass. In 1966, laws were made to protect birds-of-paradise, though traditional use by locals was still allowed.

The 1961 general election gave local people their first chance to take part in politics. Village councils gained more power in 1963, and bigger villages could form ward councils .

The 1964 election , and the one in 1968 , aimed to teach people about the political system. In 1964, the Legislative Council was replaced by the House of Assembly, which had 64 members — partly elected and partly chosen by the government. For the first time, most members were from Papua New Guinea.

Most members of the House spoke Tok Pisin, although one member needed a translator. Over time, Tok Pisin became the main language used in debates.

The House of Assembly grew to 84 members in 1967 and 100 by 1972. By then, all members were elected.

Before the 1968 election, the first political party, Pangu Pati, was formed.

Mining company Rio Tinto began exploring for minerals in Bougainville in 1964. Local landowners resisted at first, but eventually the Bougainville Copper mine was built. This led to calls for more independence in Bougainville.

Bougainville is close to the Solomon Islands and shares more culture with them than with the rest of Papua New Guinea. Still, the mine was seen as important for building an economy beyond just farming.

In 1968, some Bougainvilleans asked for a vote on becoming independent from Papua New Guinea, but it didn’t happen. Later efforts led to a local government being formed in 1973.

In 1969, Australian politician Gough Whitlam visited Papua New Guinea. He came back in 1970 and 1971 and met with the Tolai people , who wanted more control over their region. Whitlam made self-rule a big topic in Australian politics and pushed for it to happen by 1972.

UN visits in the early 1970s said more education was needed to help people understand what self-rule and independence meant. In March 1971, the House of Assembly voted to ask for self-rule, and Australia agreed.

At the same time, political education programs promoted the idea of a united nation. In June 1971, Papua New Guinea adopted its flag and emblem. In July 1971, the official name changed to simply “Papua New Guinea.”

After Whitlam’s visit, political debate grew stronger. Social changes also happened, like better education. The first graduates of the University of Papua New Guinea finished their degrees in 1970.

Local district governments were created in 1970, helping people feel more connected to their own regions.

A team of Papua New Guineans worked on planning a future constitution. They looked at other countries in Africa that had recently become independent.

In the July 1972 election, Michael Somare was elected as Chief Minister. He wanted to work well with different regional groups and help meet their needs. His government planned to give more power to local areas and make them more self-sufficient.

That year also brought a new economic plan calling for more local control of the economy. The Bank of Papua New Guinea was created in October 1972.

In December 1972, Gough Whitlam became Prime Minister of Australia. His government helped Papua New Guinea gain self-rule by late 1973.

In April 1975, Papua New Guinea introduced its own money — the kina .

On 1 September 1975 , just before independence day, the government of Bougainville declared itself independent. In response, the central government stopped sending money to the province.

Other groups also wanted more freedom before independence. The Papua Besena movement tried to split Papua from New Guinea , and later joined national politics. The Highlands Liberation Front wanted more local control but not full independence. Smaller groups wanted new provinces to be created.

These groups likely appeared because of new ideas about politics, and because independence was already planned, so they felt safe to speak up.

The push for full independence came mostly from Australia’s new policies, not from strong demands in Papua New Guinea. Many people still didn’t see themselves as part of one “country,” and a shared national identity was still forming.

Some worried that independence would let large tribes take over, or that foreigners would buy up land. But local leaders helped build support for independence over time.

On 1 June 1974, Papua New Guinea took control of its own airports. The final step came in September 1975, when the country officially became independent on 16 September 1975, under the Papua New Guinea Independence Act 1975.

Gough Whitlam and Prince Charles attended the independence ceremony. Michael Somare became the country’s first Prime Minister.

In 1972, elections led to the creation of a new government led by Chief Minister Michael Somare . He promised to guide Papua New Guinea toward self-rule and full independence.

Papua New Guinea became self-governing on December 1, 1973 , and officially became an independent nation on September 16, 1975 . Soon after, on October 10, 1975 , it joined the United Nations through two key votes: one by the UN Security Council and another by the General Assembly.

When independence began, many Australian workers left, including those in farming, business, education, and health care. Not much training had been given to the people who took their places. This caused problems and made it harder to serve people living in rural areas.

By the 1980s, politics had taken over many parts of the government, including the military. This hurt how well the government worked and made it less responsible to the public.

To help build strong political parties, the voting system was changed to "first past the post." The goal was to create two main parties, but it did not work as planned.^[11]

In 1976, local governments were set up in eight regions, including Bougainville .

National leaders changed through legal and peaceful means. Michael Somare stayed as leader after the 1977 election. In 1980, he was removed from power after a vote of no confidence. He became prime minister again after the 1982 election, but lost another vote of no confidence in 1985.

In 1977, national elections kept Michael Somare as Prime Minister. He led a group of parties called a coalition, with his own party, Pangu , in charge. But in 1980, his government lost a vote of confidence. That means enough members of parliament no longer supported him. A new leader, Sir Julius Chan , became Prime Minister.

In 1982, Pangu won more seats than any other party, and Somare was again chosen as Prime Minister. But in 1985, he lost another vote of confidence. This time, Paias Wingti became Prime Minister, leading a group of five parties. Wingti’s group won again in close elections in 1987. But in 1988, he also lost a vote of confidence. Then Rabbie Namaliu took over, after becoming the new leader of the Pangu Party.

These quick changes in leadership have been common in Papua New Guinea. Many political parties exist, and leaders often switch sides. Governments are made up of many groups working together, and votes of no confidence are frequent. All of this gives the feeling that politics are not very stable.

To try to make things more stable, a law was passed. It says new governments cannot be removed by a vote of no confidence during their first 18 months in power.

In 1987, there was a plan to make it harder for people to run for office. The cost to enter an election (called a deposit) was raised from K100 to K1000 . At first, courts stopped this change. But it was passed later, before the 1992 election. Still, the number of people running for office kept going up.

In 1991, the time when a new government could not face a vote of no confidence was increased — from 6 months to 18 months.

In 1993, Manus Province changed how people voted. Instead of choosing just one person, voters could rank candidates in order of choice. This is called preferential voting.

In 1995, provincial governments were changed. They now included national lawmakers from the province and some appointed members. This was done because elected local governments and national lawmakers often disagreed. Some powers were given to even smaller local groups, but this caused debate. People said these small groups might not be ready or able to handle the job. In fact, a legal meeting in 2000 said that all local and provincial governments had been acting without full legal authority since 1997.

The 1997 election showed a big shift away from political parties. Most people running were independent — not part of any party. About 73% of all candidates were independent, and 33% of those who won were too. On average, there were 22 people running in each area. In Oro Province , the most crowded race had 61 candidates . Only 4 of them won more than half the votes. Most winners got less than 30% of the vote, and some even got less than 10%. Of the 109 lawmakers elected, only 2 were women.

Somare said this meant the government didn’t really have public support. He pointed out that over 80% of people did not vote for the winning lawmakers.

In 1999, the government changed again while still in the middle of its term. A group called the Constitutional Development Commission was created to look into making political changes.

One major change was the Organic Law on the Integrity of Political Parties and Candidates . This law gave money to registered political parties based on how many lawmakers they had. It also encouraged parties to pick more women as candidates. It punished lawmakers who switched parties and banned independent lawmakers from helping choose the Prime Minister or joining groups before that choice was made.

Another change was switching from a simple first-past-the-post voting system to a Limited Preferential Vote (LPV) system. This lets voters rank some candidates instead of just picking one.^[12]

The 2007 general election was the first to use LPV, although it had already been tested in 10 smaller elections.

Even though an agreement in August 1976 ended the first push for independence, tensions on Bougainville Island continued after Papua New Guinea became independent. Many people on the island felt that the money from the big copper mine mostly helped the national government — not the local people.

Bougainville was the main mining area in the country and at one time brought in almost half of all exports and 20% of the nation’s income . A movement for independence started between 1975 and 1976. This led to changes in the Papua New Guinea constitution that gave more power to the provinces.

The new Organic Law on Provincial Government allowed each province to have its own government. But the timing and success of this change were different in each area. Bougainville was the first to get its own provincial government in 1976.

Some provincial governments were shut down in the 1980s because they were not managing money well. When Prime Minister Michael Somare suggested giving less power to the provinces, some island areas like Bougainville again talked about leaving the country.^[13]

After the mine on Bougainville stopped hiring many workers, younger people especially saw little benefit from it. In 1988, a new revolt began against both the local and national governments.

When the mine closed in May 1989, the Bougainville Revolutionary Army (BRA) declared independence. The national government left in 1990 and blocked trade with the island. The conflict turned into a long civil war. National troops came back to the island by the end of 1990 and slowly took control with help from local allies.

In October 1994, the government made a deal with some rebels. In 1995, a temporary government was formed in Bougainville, but fighting still continued with the BRA. The leader of this new government, Theodore Miriung , was killed in 1996.

In 1997, a scandal called the Sandline Affair , where foreign soldiers were hired to fight in Bougainville, caused the national government to fall. Peace talks led by New Zealand resulted in a ceasefire in January 1998. Around 20,000 people had died during the war.

As part of the peace deal, Bougainville would form its own government and would not follow some national laws about local rule. The Bougainville People's Congress was created to represent the island. However, disagreements over past government actions led to the formation of the Bougainville Interim Provincial Government as a compromise.

Because of the Sandline Affair and problems between the military and the government, the size of the national army (PNGDF ) was reduced from 3,700 to 2,000 people.

A lasting peace agreement was signed in 2001 . Under this deal, Bougainville would have more freedom than other provinces, and a vote on full independence would happen sometime in the future.

In 2003, the PNGDF helped support a peace mission in the Solomon Islands.

The long rebellion on Bougainville lasted about nine years and cost around 20,000 lives . Fighting officially stopped with a truce in October 1997 , and a lasting ceasefire was signed in April 1998 . A formal peace deal between the government and former fighters was signed in August 2001 .

Under the peace plan, a regional peace force and UN observers watched over the creation of a temporary government. The goal was to collect weapons, hold elections, and eventually allow Bougainville to vote on becoming independent.

A peace agreement set up the Autonomous Region of Bougainville . In 2005, Joseph Kabui was elected president. He served until his death in 2008. His deputy, John Tabinaman , became acting president until a new election could be held. James Tanis won that election in December 2008 and served until John Momis was elected in 2010.

As part of the peace deal, a vote on independence was promised to take place before mid-2020. Planning for the vote began in 2015.

Although fighting between tribes dropped under Australian rule, tribal conflicts in the highland areas grew worse in the 1970s. These places had only recently come under outside control, so old rivalries were still fresh. After independence, old fights began again.

The first state of emergency was declared in the highlands in 1979. But these efforts did not stop the violence. High unemployment and more men than women in cities led to the rise of gangs. Gang-related violence became so bad that another state of emergency was called in Port Moresby in 1984 . The Papua New Guinea Defence Force (PNGDF) stepped in and helped bring some peace. This led to more military and police actions in other areas too.

Over time, both the police and army became more involved in politics and lost discipline. More people started hiring private security for safety, and foreign companies were less likely to invest in the country due to the unrest.^[14]

The return of violence was made worse by many things: more people living in the area, land becoming more valuable for farming and resources, weaker traditional leadership, competition during elections, more cars and alcohol, and stronger weapons.

In the first ten years after independence, Papua New Guinea saw slow but steady economic growth. The Ok Tedi Mine opened in 1982 and helped boost the economy.

Australia’s financial support dropped from 40% of the government’s income in 1975 to just 17% by 1988. But better tax collection helped keep government spending at the same level.

The closing of the Bougainville mine caused money problems for the government. However, the country recovered in the early 1990s by exporting more oil, minerals, and forest products.

Even with this growth, the gap between rich and poor did not shrink. Government services also got worse. More violence both hurt the economy and grew because of it. Local fighting damaged roads and buildings, and the cost of security went up.

In 1986, public services lost much of their independence. As a result, they became more tied to politics. Rising government costs and growing debt led to serious financial problems.

In 1994, the value of the Papua New Guinean kina was lowered, and it was allowed to float based on market demand. In 1995, the country received an emergency loan from the World Bank to help with these issues.

A strong drought hit in 1997 due to El Niño weather patterns , killing over 1,000 people.

Many Chinese people have lived and worked in Papua New Guinea for a long time. They built communities and started businesses, even before Europeans arrived. In May 2009, large riots broke out involving thousands of people. The trouble began after a fight between ethnic Chinese workers and local Papua New Guineans at a nickel factory being built by a Chinese company.

Local people were upset because many small businesses were owned by Chinese immigrants. Some felt that Chinese merchants had too much control over trade and business. This anger led to the rioting.^[15]

In 1998, a strong earthquake caused large waves called tsunamis. These waves killed more than 1,500 people.

In 2000, rising sea levels forced people living in the Duke of York Islands to move away.

In 2007, a storm named Cyclone Guba caused serious flooding. This flood made about 13,000 people leave their homes.

In 2001, Australia opened a detention center on Manus Island to hold asylum seekers. In 2002, violence increased during national elections. In 2004, Australian police were sent to Papua New Guinea to help train local officers. Most left in 2005 after a court decision, but this started a long-term effort by Australia to support PNG’s police force.

The Manus detention center grew larger in 2013. But after legal action and public debate, it was closed in 2017.

During the 2000s, the country saw strong economic growth, mostly because of more mining, oil, and gas work. However, living standards did not improve as much as hoped. The government's debt dropped from 72% of GDP in 2002 to 22% in 2011. Gambling became legal in 2007, and in 2009, PNG signed its first deal to sell natural gas to China.

A peace agreement with Bougainville was signed in 2001. In 2005, Bougainville held its first election under its new self-rule system. Joseph Kabui was elected president and served until his death in 2008. John Tabinaman took over temporarily until a new vote in December 2008, when James Tanis won. He served until June 2010, when John Momis was elected.^[16]

In 2009, two new provinces — Hela and Jiwaka — were created. They officially became separate regions in May 2012. These changes came with the start of a big natural gas project in those areas.

Also in 2009, Papua New Guinea asked for full membership in the group called ASEAN , which includes many Southeast Asian nations. Indonesia supported this after PNG backed Indonesia’s control over its own western province.

In 2011, there was a political crisis between two leaders who both claimed to be Prime Minister: Peter O'Neill and Michael Somare. Parliament chose O'Neill, but the Supreme Court said Somare was still in charge. This led to rival governments and even a short military rebellion in 2012. Eventually, elections were held, and O'Neill was chosen again. Somare joined his government, and some controversial laws were canceled.

In the early years after independence, governments often changed because of no-confidence votes in Parliament. In 2012, a law was passed to stop such votes for the first 30 months of a government’s term. But in 2015, the Supreme Court said the law was not allowed.

Natural gas exports began in 2014, but falling prices hurt the economy. By 2019, Papua New Guinea had the lowest human development level in the Pacific region. In 2015, a new law gave the people of Bougainville more power over mining decisions. It also said that landowners had the right to say “yes” or “no” to future mining projects.

From 2012 to 2017, Prime Minister Peter O'Neill faced many corruption charges. He won the 2017 election but with less support than before. Some areas had threats and delays in vote counting. Scandals and expensive purchases made him less popular. Many lawmakers left his side, but he stayed in office until May 2019, when he resigned. He was replaced by James Marape.

Marape had been a top minister in O’Neill’s government. His decision to leave helped push O’Neill out. In 2020, a new anti-corruption agency was created.

In November 2019, Bougainville held a vote asking if they wanted full independence or more freedom within PNG. Over 98% voted for independence. Negotiations between PNG and Bougainville about how to reach independence began in 2021.

In early 2018, a series of earthquakes hit Papua New Guinea, causing damage and loss of life. Australia and New Zealand quickly sent aid.

In July 2022, James Marape’s party, PANGU , won the most seats in the election, allowing him to stay as Prime Minister. The election was criticized for poor planning, voter roll problems, and violence. Two women were elected to Parliament, including one who became a provincial leader.

On January 10, 2024, riots broke out in Port Moresby and Lae after police and workers protested low pay. Shops were burned and looted. At least 22 people died. Prime Minister Marape declared a 14-day state of emergency to try to restore order.