Maurya Empire

The Mauryan Empire was an ancient Indian empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya in 322 BCE and lasted until 185 BCE.^[3] It had an efficient and highly organized autocracy with a standing army and civil service.^[4] Its capital was in Pataliputra. The Mauryan empire reached its peak under Ashoka and included regions that are now part of Afghanistan, Nepal, Pakistan, India and Bangladesh.^[5]

Chandragupta Maurya, with help from his advisor Chanakya, defeated the Nanda Empire around 322 BCE. After that, he moved west and by about 321 BCE, Chandragupta had taken Punjab and Sindh from the Greek Satraps.^[6] By about 305 BCE, he fought a war with the Greek ruler Seleucus I Nicator. The Chandragupta won the war and in treaty gained more land west of the Indus River, including Aria, Gedrosia, Arachosia, and Paropamisadae.^[7]

The word Maurya does not appear in Ashoka’s own writings or in Greek records like Megasthenes's Indica. But the name "Maurya" appears in later writings:

• The Junagadh rock inscription (around 150 CE) by King Rudradaman I uses the word "Maurya" before the names of Chandragupta and Ashoka.^[8]
• The Puranas (written around the 4th century CE or earlier) also use "Maurya" to describe the dynasty.
• In Tamil Sangam literature, the Mauryas are called "Moriyar", and are mentioned after the Nandas.^[9]
• A 12th-century inscription from Kuntala (in modern-day North Mysore) lists the “Maurya” as one of the dynasties that ruled the area.^[10]
• Hathigumpha inscription by King Kharavela (2nd–1st century BCE) refers to the time of the Maurya Empire by the Prakrit term "Muriya Kala" (Maurya period).^[11] In Buddhist stories, the Maurya family's ancestors lived in a place with many peacocks. The word for peacock in the Pali language is mora, so they were called "Moriyas", meaning "people of the peacock place". Another Buddhist text says they built a city named Moriya-nagara, which means “city of the Moriyas,” because its bricks looked like a peacock’s neck.^[12] This link to peacocks is also found in Jain stories. Archaeologists have found peacock images on the Ashoka pillar at Lauria Nandangarh and on the Great Stupa at Sanchi. Because of this, many modern historians believe the peacock was the symbol of the Maurya dynasty.^[13] Later writers, like Dhundhiraja in the 18th century, said that the word "Maurya" came from Mura, the name of Chandragupta's mother. However, the Puranas do not mention Mura, and do not say that the Nanda and Maurya dynasties were related. Also, according to Sanskrit grammar, if the name came from a woman named Murā, the correct form would be "Maureya", not "Maurya". So this explanation is likely incorrect.^[14][15]

The Maurya Empire was divided into four provinces, with the main capital at Pataliputra (modern-day Patna). From the inscriptions of Ashoka, we know the names of the provincial capitals:

• Tosali in the east
• Ujjain in the west
• Suvarnagiri in the south
• Taxila in the north

Each province was ruled by a Kumara (royal prince), who represented the emperor. The Kumara was helped by high officials called Mahamatyas and a council of ministers. At the empire level, the emperor ruled with help from his own Council of Ministers (Mantriparishad).

The Mauryas had a well-developed coin system. Most coins were made of silver and copper, but some gold coins were also used. These coins helped trade and business grow across the empire.^[16]

Historians believe that the empire's organization followed the ideas written in the Arthashastra by Chanakya. It describes a large government that managed many areas like public health, trade, and taxes.^[17]

The Maurya Empire had one of the biggest armies of the Iron Age. According to the Greek writer Megasthenes, the Mauryan army had 600,000 foot soldiers, 30,000 cavalry (horse riders), 8,000 chariots, 9,000 war elephants. These forces were also supported by many helpers and attendants.^[18]

The empire also had a large spy system to gather information and keep the empire safe. Even though Ashoka gave up wars of conquest after the Kalinga War, he kept the army strong to protect the empire and keep peace.^[19]

Romila Thapar writes that Mauryan control over administration and taxes was strong, but different regions were managed in different ways. In forest areas, local chiefs may have collected taxes in the form of forest goods for the empire. Ashoka's messages to forest people show firm control, not weakness. The empire accepted that it ruled over many different kinds of people and areas, not one uniform system.^[20]

The Mauryan economy has been described as state-controlled. Some scholars call it a kind of state socialism or the first welfare state in the world.^[21] There was no private ownership of land. All land belonged to the king, and farmers had to give part of their crops to the state as tax. In return, the emperor gave them tools and seeds, animals, food during famines, Irrigation and storage systems, public buildings and roads^[21]

The Arthashastra and the Greek writer Megasthenes describe how the Maurya Empire organized local government, especially in cities like Pataliputra. Cities were managed by a city council made up of 30 officials, divided into six committees. Each committee had its own job:

1. Set wages and looked after supply of goods. 2. Arranged for visitors like foreign guests, tourists, and traders. 3. Kept records and registrations. 4. Took care of products made in the city and their sale. 5. Controlled trade, gave business licenses, and checked weights and measures. 6. Collected sales taxes.

Some cities, such as Taxila, had special rights and could make their own coins. The city council also worked on public welfare, they maintained roads, buildings, markets, schools, hospitals, and more.^[22]

In villages, the head official was called a Gramika. In towns, the main officer was the Nagarika (city officer).^[23] These officials also had magisterial powers, they could act like judges.

According to Buddhist, Jain, and Hindu texts, the region of Magadha was ruled by the powerful Nanda dynasty before the rise of the Mauryas. With the help of his advisor Chanakya, Chandragupta Maurya defeated the Nandas and took control of the empire.^[24][25][26]

After the death of Alexander the Great, his general Seleucus I Nicator took control of the eastern part of his empire. Around 305 BCE, Seleucus crossed the Indus River and fought a war with Chandragupta Maurya. This conflict is known as the Seleucid–Mauryan war which ended in a peace treaty. According to Appian, Seleucus and Chandragupta came to an agreement and even had a marriage alliance:

" Seleucus crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of he Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. Some of these exploits were performed before the death of Antigonus and some afterward."

— Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55

As part of the treaty, Seleucus gave Chandragupta control of four eastern satrapies Gedrosia, Arachosia, Aria and Paropamisadae. In return, Chandragupta gave Seleucus 500 war elephants, which later played an important role in Seleucid battles. Strabo, another Greek historian, described these regions and confirmed they were once taken by Alexander and later handed over by Seleucus to Chandragupta:

" The geographical position of the tribes is as follows: along the Indus are the Paropamisadae, above whom lies the Paropamisus mountain: then, towards the south, the Arachoti: then next, towards the south, the Gedroseni, with the other tribes that occupy the seaboard; and the Indus lies, latitudinally, alongside all these places; and of these places, in part, some that lie along the Indus are held by Indians, although they formerly belonged to the Persians. Alexander [III 'the Great' of Macedon] took these away from the Arians and established settlements of his own, but Seleucus Nicator gave them to Sandrocottus [Chandragupta], upon terms of intermarriage and of receiving in exchange five hundred elephants. "

— Strabo , 15.2.9^[27]

Greecian historian Pliny the Elder also mentioned that these four satrapies became part of India under the Maurya Empire:

Most geographers, in fact, do not look upon India as bounded by the river Indus, but add to it the four satrapies of the Gedrose, the Arachotë, the Aria, and the Paropamisadë, the River Cophes thus forming the extreme boundary of India.

— Pliny the Elder, Natural History VI.23

Greek writer Plutarch added that after Chandragupta became king, he defeated Seleucus and took control of India:

Not long afterwards Androkottos, who had by that time mounted the throne, presented Seleukos with 500 elephants, and overran and subdued the whole of India with an army of 600,000.

— Plutarch, Life of Alexander §Chapter-LXII

Megasthenes described the region that Chandragupta won from Seleucus as likely western side Gedrosia which shares boundaries with the Euphrates River, and eastern side Arachosia shares boundaries with the Indus. The northern frontier boundary formed by Hindukush mountain range:

Sandrokottos the king of the Indians, India forms the largest of the four parts into which Southern Asia is divided, while the smallest part is that region which is included between the Euphrates and our own sea. The two remaining parts, which are separated from the others by the Euphrates and the Indus, and lie between these rivers [...] India is bounded on its eastern side, right onwards to the south, by the great ocean; that its northern frontier is formed by the Kaukasos range (Hindukush Range) as far as the junction of that range with Tauros; and that the boundary.

— Megasthenes, Indica, Book I, Fragment II

The ancient historians Justin, Appian, and Strabo explain the three main terms of the Treaty of Indus.

Chandragupta Maurya also expanded his empire to the southwestern part of India, including the region of Saurashtra. This conquest is mentioned in the inscription of Rudradaman.

For the sake of the Maurya king Chandragupta, the lake was built by Pushyagupta, a Vaishya and provincial governor. Later, for the Maurya king Ashoka, it was improved by the Yavana (Greek) king Tushaspha while he was ruling the region.

— Junagadh Rock Inscription of Rudradaman

Chandragupta Maurya started a major irrigation project by creating the Sudarshana Lake near Girnar in Saurashtra. Bindusara possibly expand the empire in further south India.^[28]

The groups mentioned as being under Emperor Ashoka’s rule include the Kambojas, Nabhakas, Nabhapamktis, Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras, and Palidas. In his Rock Edict XIII at Kalsi, Ashoka states that these tribes, within his dominion, were following his teachings on Dhamma (moral law).

Likewise here in the king's (Ashoka's) territory, among the Yonas and Kambojas, among the Nabhakas and Nabhapamkits, among the Bhojas and the Pitinikas, among the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere (people) are conforming to Beloved-Of-God (Ashoka) instruction in morality.

— Ashoka, Rock Edict XIII, Kalsi Rock (South Portion).^[29]

The Kalinga War was an important event in Mauryan history. It changed Emperor Ashoka from a strict and harsh ruler to a kind and peaceful ruler (called Priyadarsi Ashoka).

"Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Priyadarsi (Ashoka) conquered the Kalingas eight years after his coronation. One hundred and fifty thousand were deported, one hundred thousand were killed and many more died (from other causes). After the Kalingas had been conquered, Beloved-of-the-Gods came to feel a strong inclination towards the Dharma, a love for the Dharma and for instruction in Dharma. Now Beloved-of-the-Gods feels deep remorse for having conquered the Kalingas."

— Ashoka, Major Rock Edict 13

The Shikarpur Taluq inscription mentions Mauryan rule in the Kuntala country, an ancient Indian region that included the western Deccan, parts of southern Karnataka, and northern Mysore.

The Kuntala country, which is like curls (kuntaja) to the lady Earth, was ruled by the renowned Nine Nandas, the Gupta, and the Maurya kings.

— Shikarpur Taluq inscription 225 [3]

Ashoka built many important places in the region of present-day Nepal. These include the Ramagrama Stupa,Gotihawa Pillar of Ashoka, Nigali-Sagar Ashoka Pillar inscription , and the Lumbini pillar inscription of Ashoka.The Chinese pilgrims Fa-Hien (337 CE – c. 422 CE) and Xuanzang (602–664 CE) describe the Kanakamuni Stupa and the Asoka Pillar of currently Nepal region in their travel accounts. Xuanzang speaks of a lion capital atop the pillar, now lost. A base of a Pillar of Ashoka has been discovered at Gotihawa, a few miles from Nigali Sagar, and it has been suggested that it is the original base of the Nigalar Sagar pillar fragments.^[30]

Ashoka in his Second Major Rock Edict discovered at Kalsi, Mansehra, Girnar, and Shahbazgarhi, mentions the boundaries of his empire four times across different inscriptions. Notably, he does not mention any unconquered or independent regions within these boundaries. This suggests that Ashoka’s empire was likely contiguous, with no significant autonomous regions enclosed within it.^[31]

1. Sarvata vijitamhi Devānaṃpriyasa Piyadasino rāño 2. evamapi pracaṃtesu yathā Coḍa Pāḍā Satiyaputo Ketalaputo ā Taṃba- 3. paṃṇī Aṃtiyako Yona-rājā ye vā pi tasa Aṃtiy[a]kas[a] sāmīp[aṃ] 4. rājāno sarvatra Devānaṃpriyasa Priyadasino rāño dve cikīcha katā 5 manusa-cīkichā ca pasu cikīchā ca

—Second Rock Edict^[32]

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— James Prinsep Translation : Everywhere within the conquered province of Raja Piyadasi (Ashoka), the beloved of the gods, as well as in the parts occupied by the faithful, such as Chola, Pandiya, Satiyaputra, and Keralaputra, even as fart as Tambapanni (Sri Lanka) and, moreover, within the dominions the Greek (of which Antiochus generals are the rulers ) everywhere the heaven-beloved Raja Piyadasi’s double system of medical aid is established— both medical aid for men, and medical aid for animals, together with the medicaments of all sorts, which are suitable for men, and suitable for animals.^[33]

— E. Hultzsch Translation: Everywhere in the dominions of Dévanampriya Priyadarsina, and (of those) who (are his) borderers, such as the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputra, the Kéralaputra, Tamaraparni, the Yona(Greek) king named Antiyoka , and the other kings who are the neighbours of this Antiyoka, everywhere two kinds of medical treatment were established by king Devanampriya Priyadarsin, (viz.) medical treatment for men and medical treatment for cattle.^[34]

During the rule of the Mauryan Empire, forests were owned by the state. A special department looked after them under a revenue officer called samāharta. A forest officer managed forest work like collecting resources, setting prices, and selling forest products. Water supply and rules for forest use were also controlled. An officer called Akshatapala checked the accounts. This system helped keep the forests well-managed.^[35] Historian Ram Sharan Sharma said the Mauryas had a big army and a strong legal system to keep peace, especially in tribal areas that could cause trouble.^[36] According to archaeologist Dilip Chakrabarti, the different versions of Ashoka’s edicts found across the subcontinent show that there must have been a strong central system to manage them. He said that large forested areas in central India were not outside Mauryan control. If they were, we would not find so many edict sites along the Kaimur hills and central Indian routes like Sasaram, Ahraura, Rupnath, and Panguraria.^[37] D. R. Bhandarkar, an archaeologist, said the empire was well-governed, with different regions managed by viceroys. This helped keep tight control.^[38] Radha Kumud Mookerji believed that Ashoka ruled such a large empire that he could not visit every place himself.^[39] Nayanjyot Lahiri noted that Ashoka’s edicts were found in over 50 places across India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, and many more may still be lost or hidden and needed to be discovered.^[40] Patrick Olivelle critiques method of defining the empire's boundaries by simply connecting the locations of Ashokan edicts, suggesting this approach is overly simplistic and misleading.^[41]

Chandragupta Maurya started the Maurya Empire by defeating the ruler of the Nanda Empire. He expanded the empire with the help of his advisor Chanakya. By 316 BC, the Maurya Empire had taken control of the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent, by defeating the governors left behind by Alexander the Great. Chandragupta also defeated Seleucus I Nicator.^[42] Chandragupta Maurya improved the administration of his empire by learning from other cultures. He organized his army and court system like the Persians, and made new improvements based on Greek ideas. One of his most famous projects was building the Great Royal Highway, which later became known as the Grand Trunk Road.^[43]

After Chandragupta, his son Bindusara became the emperor in 298 BC. He was called "Amitraghata", a Sanskrit word meaning "slayer of enemies". He expanded the empire further into the southern parts of India. When he died, only Kalinga (modern Odisha) and parts of the Chola kingdom were still outside the Mauryan control.

Ashoka, the son of Bindusara, became the ruler of the Maurya Empire in 268 BC. He is known as one of the greatest emperors in Indian history. Ashoka fought a violent and bloody battle called the Kalinga War to conquer the region of Kalinga (modern-day Odisha). This war deeply affected Ashoka. After seeing the suffering, he changed his way of life. He decided to follow the path of peace (ahimsa) and victory through religion (dharma-vijaya). He worked to spread its teachings across his empire and beyond. Ashoka built many rock edicts, inscriptions, and stupas to share his message of peace and dharma. The national emblem of India today is taken from one of his stone pillars.

After his death in 232 BC, the empire started to decline. The empire lasted just fifty years after his death. Brihadratha Maurya, the last Mauryan emperor was killed by his general Pushyamitra Sunga, who founded the Sunga Empire in 185 BC.^[44]

• Mookerji, R. K. (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 9788120804050.
• Raychaudhuri, H. C. (1988). Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9788120800182.